Chapter 12: Talking About the Past and the Future

Starting point#

A Tz'ikin, the teacher from Comalapa (Chiq'a'l), runs into his friend a Tojil, the student from Sololá (Tz'olöj Ya'), in the street.

Underline the verbs and you will see two families. The ones about yesterday all start with x-: xab'än, xisamäj, xink'üt, xqatij, xitzolin, xintz'ib'aj, xawär, xiwär, xinsik'ij, xib'e, xqalöq', xojtzolin, xqab'än. The ones about tomorrow start with xt- or xk-: xtab'än, xkib'e, xtintz'ët, xkojwa', xkisamäj, xkab'e, xtinb'ij. Strip those first pieces off and what is left is exactly what Chapters 10 and 11 taught you.

How it works#

Aspect, not tense: what x- and xt- really say#

English verbs carry tense: they locate an event in time relative to now (past, present, future). Kaqchikel verbs carry aspect: they say how the speaker views the event, as a completed whole, as ongoing or unbounded, or as not yet real. Time and aspect overlap so much in practice that you can, for most purposes, treat the three Kaqchikel markers as past, present and future. But keeping the real names in mind explains several things that would otherwise look odd.

Because x- means "completed" rather than "before now", a completive verb can describe a present state that results from a completed change: xikos "I'm tired" (my getting tired is complete), xkäm "he died" and also "he is dead", xpe nuwaran "I've become sleepy" (literally "my sleep came"). And because n- means "not bounded" rather than "now", you can tell a whole story in the incompletive once the time frame has been set ("long ago there was a rabbit; one morning he walks into the hills..."), and you can use it for a future event that is as good as fixed: yib'e chwa'q "I'm going tomorrow". The potential xkib'e chwa'q "I'll go tomorrow" is the form you use when the future is being asserted, promised, predicted or doubted rather than reported as a plan. In practice the question to ask yourself is whether the thing is already settled. A plan that is fixed, on the calendar, agreed with someone, takes the incompletive; a promise, a prediction or a guess made on the spot takes the potential. Yib'e chwa'q is what you say when the trip is arranged; xkib'e chwa'q is what you say when you decide it as you speak.

The completive x- with intransitive verbs#

The completive marker is x- in every environment. Unlike the incompletive, it does not alternate with anything, so the only thing to attend to is the Set B (absolutive) subject that follows it: i-/in-, a-/at-, Ø, oj-, ix-, e-/e'-. Set B (absolutive) is the set that marks the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive one; Set A (ergative) marks the subject of a transitive verb and possessors.

One form taken apart:

x-i-b'e
COMPL-1sB-go
"I went"

Here is the same verb through all six persons, beside -wär "sleep" and the vowel-initial -el "leave, go out", which takes the pre-vocalic Set B shapes:

x-Ø-b'e
COMPL-3sB-go
"she went"

x-in-el
COMPL-1sB-leave
"I left"

x-e'-el
COMPL-3pB-leave
"they left"

Notice that with the zero third person the x- sits directly on the stem: xb'e, xwär, xpe "he came", xok "she went in", xkos "he got tired". There is no bridging vowel here; x + consonant is a cluster Kaqchikel is happy with, unlike n + consonant (where you get niwär). Compare the incompletive and completive side by side for the third person: nib'e / xb'e, niwär / xwär, npe / xpe.

More examples, with the high-frequency intransitives from Chapter 10:

The completive x- with transitive verbs#

Transitive verbs keep the template ASPECT + Set B (object) + Set A (subject) + stem. Replace the n- of the incompletive with x- and you have the completive, with one sound change to watch: the third-person Set A.

Third-singular object (zero), consonant-initial stem. Here is -löq' "buy" next to its incompletive:

x-Ø-in-löq'
COMPL-3sB-1sA-buy
"I bought it"

x-Ø-u-löq'
COMPL-3sB-3sA-buy
"she bought it"

x-Ø-ki-löq'
COMPL-3sB-3pA-buy
"they bought it"

The disappearing r. "She bought it" is xulöq', not xrulöq'. Exactly as after n- (nulöq'), the third-person Set A ru- loses its r when it is wedged between the aspect prefix and a consonant. The r is not gone from the language; it is sitting in the underlying form and reappears the moment a vowel precedes it (xarutz'ët "she saw you") or follows it (xrajo'* "she wanted it"). Think of it as cluster avoidance: x + r + u + l is too much consonant; x + u + l is fine.

Third-singular object, vowel-initial stem. Now the Set A is pre-vocalic, and the third person keeps its r:

x-Ø-inw-ajo'
COMPL-3sB-1sA-want
"I wanted it"

x-Ø-r-ajo'
COMPL-3sB-3sA-want
"he wanted it"

x-Ø-r-il
COMPL-3sB-3sA-find
"he found it"

x-Ø-k-il
COMPL-3sB-3pA-find
"they found it"

Set the two third-person forms side by side and the pattern is clear: xulöq' (r dropped before a consonant) but xrajo' (r kept before a vowel). The same pair in the incompletive is nulöq' / nrajo'.

Other objects. When the object is not third singular, x- is followed by a non-zero Set B marker, then the Set A subject. Here is the full completive matrix for -tz'ët "see"; compare it cell by cell with the incompletive matrix in Chapter 11. Every y- has become x-, and nothing else has changed.

x-at-in-tz'ët
COMPL-2sB-1sA-see
"I saw you"

x-in-a-tz'ët
COMPL-1sB-2sA-see
"you saw me"

x-i-ru-tz'ët
COMPL-1sB-3sA-see
"she saw me"

x-oj-ki-tz'ët
COMPL-1pB-3pA-see
"they saw us"

x-e-ru-tz'ët
COMPL-3pB-3sA-see
"he saw them"

Note again that after a vowel the third person Set A keeps its r: xirutz'ët, xarutz'ët, xojrutz'ët, xixrutz'ët, xerutz'ët. Only the bare x-Ø-u- sequence drops it. With a vowel-initial stem the pre-vocalic r- appears: xirajo' "he loved me" (x-i-r-ajo'), xarajo' "he loved you", xojrajo' "she loved us", xerajo' "she loved them".

Sentences:

The potential xt- / xk-#

The potential marker behaves like the incompletive: it has one shape before the zero third-person singular Set B and another before everything else.

Compare: n- / y- in the incompletive, xt- / xk- in the potential. In both cases the "zero" shape is the one that ends in a coronal consonant (n, t) and the "non-zero" shape in a different one (y, k). Since the vast majority of verbs in real speech have a zero object or a zero intransitive subject, xt- is by far the more frequent shape, just as n- is.

Intransitives. The subject is Set B. Everything except third singular takes xk-; third singular takes xt-.

xk-i-b'e
POT-1sB-go
"I will go"

xk-oj-wär
POT-1pB-sleep
"we will sleep"

xt-Ø-i-b'e
POT-3sB-(bridging i)-go
"she will go"

xt-Ø-el
POT-3sB-leave
"he will leave"

xk-e'-el
POT-3pB-leave
"they will leave"

Look at the third-singular forms: xtib'e, xtiwär, xtipe "she will come", but xtel, xtok "he will go in", xtapon "she will arrive there". Before a consonant-initial stem a bridging i is inserted between xt- and the stem, because Kaqchikel avoids clusters like xtb'- and xtw-; before a vowel-initial stem no help is needed. This is the same bridging i you met in niwär (Chapter 10), and it will come back with transitives below.

Transitives with a third-singular object. xt- + Ø + Set A + stem. Because xt- ends in a consonant, the Set A prefix that follows it has to be pronounceable after t. Two worked examples first:

xt-Ø-in-löq'
POT-3sB-1sA-buy
"I will buy it"

xt-Ø-i-r-ajo'
POT-3sB-(bridging i)-3sA-want
"she will want it"

Here is what happens with each person, in full:

Three things are going on here, and each is regular:

1. First and second person need nothing special: xtin-, xta-, xti-, xtinw-, xtaw-, xtiw-. The vowel of the Set A prefix (or the i of 2p) separates t from the stem.
2. Third-person singular before a consonant drops the r of ru-, exactly as after x- and n-: xtulöq', xtub'än "he will do it", xtuk'ayij "she will sell it", xtuya' kan "she will leave it". The u of u- does the separating.
3. Wherever xt- would land on a consonant (qa-, ki-, and the pre-vocalic r-), a bridging i is inserted: xtiqalöq', xtikilöq', xtirajo', xtiroyoj "she will call him", xtirelesaj "he will take it off". The r of r- is kept, because it is followed by a vowel; the bridging i simply keeps xt and r apart.

The result is a little asymmetry worth memorizing: xtulöq' (3s, consonant stem: r dropped, no i) versus xtirajo' (3s, vowel stem: r kept, i inserted). And two forms with i that are not third person: xtilöq' is "you all will buy it" (the i is the 2p Set A), while xtiqalöq' and xtikilöq' are "we / they will buy it" with a bridging i.

Transitives with other objects. xk- + Set B + Set A + stem, with no surprises: the Set B vowel keeps everything apart.

xk-at-in-tz'ët
POT-2sB-1sA-see
"I will see you"

xk-in-a-tz'ët
POT-1sB-2sA-see
"you will see me"

xk-i-ru-tz'ët
POT-1sB-3sA-see
"she will see me"

xk-oj-aw-oyoj
POT-1pB-2sA-call
"you will call us"

xk-e'-in-tz'ët
POT-3pB-1sA-see
"I will see them"

Sentences:

Careful with the second person: "you will go" is xkab'e (xk-a-b'e), with the pre-consonantal a- before b'; the pre-vocalic at- appears only before a vowel-initial stem, as in xkatel "you will leave" and xkatok "you will go in".

The bridging i: where it appears and why#

You have now met the same small vowel in several places. It is never a morpheme; it is a pronunciation repair that appears when prefixes pile up consonants that Kaqchikel will not say together. Collecting the cases:

After x- the repair is not needed: xb'e, xwär, xqalöq', xkilöq', xrajo' are all fine as they are. The difference is that x alone before a consonant is tolerated, while n or xt plus another consonant is not. If you remember "xt- and n- want a vowel after them; x- does not care", you will spell every form right. (Strictly speaking, the authors' newer grammar notes that clusters like xtb'- are possible in principle and that "most speakers choose to break up these clusters" with an i, Kik'aslemal ri Kaqchikela', draft, p. 210; in its own texts, as in this book, the i after xt- is written every time.)

A danger zone: xki- and xke-#

Because xk- is the potential before a non-zero Set B, and ki- is the third-person plural Set A, two quite different things can look alike:

The test is simple. A transitive stem with Set A ki- right in front of it and nothing between the x and the ki- is a completive "they ... it": the k belongs to the subject. An intransitive stem, or a stem preceded by a Set B plus a Set A, with xk at the front is potential: the k belongs to the aspect marker. So xkib'e can only be "I will go" (b'e is intransitive, so ki- cannot be Set A here), and xkib'än can only be "they did it" (there is no way to read k-i- as potential plus Set B plus Set A, because a Set A is missing). Read the stem first; the rest follows.

Past, present, future: choosing the right one#

Some contrasts, to sharpen the feel:

Two places where English habits mislead:

• English "was doing / used to do" is not x-. The completive says "done, as a unit"; an ongoing or habitual past action is expressed by setting the time with a word like ojer "in earlier times" or junab'ir "last year" and then using the incompletive, or by the perfect and progressive constructions of Chapter 15 (States, Results, and Ongoing Actions). "In earlier times people went on foot; there were no cars": Ojer yeb'iyin ri winaqi'; majun ch'ich': the time word ojer sets the frame, and the verb stays in the incompletive. (You will also meet ojer with the completive, for a one-time fact viewed as done and over: ojer kan "long ago" often opens such sentences.)
• English present perfect "I have eaten" is usually just x- with yan "already": xiwa' yan "I've eaten already". The result-state reading of x- (xikos "I'm tired") covers much of the rest.

Time expressions#

Time words normally come first in the sentence, before the verb, setting the frame; they can also follow. Past time words go naturally with x-, future ones with xt-/xk- (or with the incompletive for plans).

Looking back

Looking ahead

The pattern is neat: the day-counting forms are old verbs frozen into adverbs, with -ir marking "ago" and -ij marking "ahead", and above three days speakers switch to a counted phrase with a directional, kan "back, remaining" for the past and apo "onward, over there" for the future (Chapter 14: Directionals and Verbs of Motion has more on these two words).

Already, still, not yet, again, no longer#

A handful of short words fine-tune the time meaning. Most of them come right after the verb (or after the verb plus its first object).

Questions and negation in the past and future#

Questions are built exactly as in the present (Chapter 20 treats them fully). Yes/no questions take the particle la at the front, or just rising intonation; content questions put the question word first, and location questions with akuchi' "where" add wi after the verb.

Negation wraps the verb in man ... ta, as always; the aspect marker is untouched:

For "I never ...", use majun b'ey ... ta: Majun b'ey xinwil ta ri nupwäq "I never found my money".

Telling what happened: sequence#

To narrate a day or a story you need a few connectors and the completive. The connectors:

Here is ma Kawoq telling his day. Read it once for the story, then go back and label every x-.

Iwir xiyakatäj jukumaj. Nab'ey xinqüm jun kape, k'a ri' xib'e pa wawän. Xintik ixim, xinch'är si'. Pa nik'aj q'ij xitzolin pa wochoch, xintij wäy rik'in kinäq'. Tiqaq'ij xpe a Tojil, xojtzijon pa ruwi' ri samaj. Töq xb'e rija', xinwelesaj ri si' pa ch'ich'. Toq'a' xinwak'axaj talutzij, k'a ri' xiwär.

Yesterday I got up early. First I drank a coffee, then I went to my cornfield. I planted corn and split firewood. At midday I returned home and ate tortillas with beans. In the afternoon Tojil came, and we talked about the work. When he left, I unloaded the firewood from the truck. In the evening I listened to the radio, then I slept.

Two things to notice. First, almost every verb has a zero object or a zero intransitive subject, so x- is followed directly by a Set A (xin-, xoj-) or by the stem (xpe, xb'e). Second, the time words and connectors (iwir, nab'ey, k'a ri', pa nik'aj q'ij, tiqaq'ij, töq, toq'a') carry the sequence; the verbs themselves just say "done". That division of labor, time words for when and aspect for how, is the Kaqchikel way.

A "when" clause with töq takes the completive if the event is completed: Töq xintz'ët, xinoq' "When I saw it, I cried" (both verbs x-). For a future "when", use the potential in the main clause and either the potential or the incompletive in the töq clause: Töq xtipe, xtinb'ij chre "When she comes, I'll tell her".

Patterns at a glance#

The three aspect markers and their shapes

Intransitive paradigm in all three aspects ( -b'e "go", -el "leave")

Transitive with "it" as object in all three aspects ( -löq' "buy", -ajo' "want")

Third-person Set A: r or no r?

Sample of non-zero objects across aspects

Time words: iwir, kab'ijir, oxijir, N q'ij kan, wuqub'ixir, junab'ir, ojer (kan) / chwa'q, kab'ij, oxij, N q'ij apo, wuqub'ix apo, ri juna' apo. Modifiers: yan "already", chik "again / any more", majani "not yet", k'a ... na "still", majun b'ey "never". Connectors: nab'ey, k'a ri', töq, k'a, roma, k'isib'äl.

Vocabulary#

Usage and dialect notes#

• Stress and the x-. Since stress is on the last syllable, the aspect prefix is never stressed; xinlöq' is "xin-LÖQ'", xtikilöq' is "xti-ki-LÖQ'". The x- and xt- are short and crisp, like the sh of English "she" (x) followed immediately by the next consonant.
• Pronouncing xt- and xk-. Say them as a single cluster with no vowel: xt-ib'e, xk-ib'e. The i that follows xt in xtib'e, xtiqalöq' is a genuine short i; do not add one after xk (xkib'e is "shki-B'E", not "shiki-").
• nir- / xtir-. The bridging i after n- (nirajo') is optional in writing; after xt- (xtirajo') it is obligatory. Do not write *xtrajo'.
• xkab'e, not xkatb'e. The second singular potential before a consonant is xkab'e, xkawär, xkasamäj; before a vowel it is xkatel, xkatok, xkatapon*. The choice is made by the next sound, as always.
• Dialect shapes. The markers themselves are stable across the Kaqchikel area. What varies is the vocabulary around them: wakami "today" is also wakamin and kami, and wakamik / kamik near Lake Atitlán; roma "because" is ruma in many towns.
• Result states. Xikos "I'm tired", xinüm "I got hungry / I'm hungry", xpe nuwaran "I'm sleepy", xkäm "died / is dead", xk'is "it's finished / ran out" are completives in form but often present in meaning. Do not try to say "I am tired" with the incompletive.
• The "ago" words. iwir, kab'ijir, oxijir, junab'ir are frozen forms; do not put x- on them. Likewise chwa'q and kab'ij take no prefix.
• "Maybe" is rik'in jub'a (literally "with a little"); it often introduces a potential: Rik'in jub'a xkib'e "Maybe I'll go".

Pitfalls for English speakers#

1. Reading xki- as "they". xkib'e is "I will go". Check the stem first: if it is intransitive, ki- cannot be Set A, so the k belongs to the potential xk-.
2. Writing the r after x- before a consonant: xrulöq'. It is xulöq'; the r survives only before a vowel (xrajo') or after a vowel (xarutz'ët*).
3. Leaving out the bridging i after xt-: xtqalöq', xtrajo'. Write xtiqalöq', xtirajo'. But do not add an i after x- (xqalöq', xrajo' are right as they are).
4. Using at- before a consonant: xkatb'e. Before a consonant the 2s Set B is a-: xkab'e, xab'e*.
5. Using x- for "was doing / used to". The completive is "done, as a unit". For habitual or ongoing past, set the time and use the incompletive (ojer yeb'iyin), or wait for Chapter 15.
6. Translating "I am tired" with the incompletive. Result states are completives: xikos.
7. Putting the time word in the middle of the verb phrase. Time words go first (or last): Iwir xib'e pa k'ayb'äl, not *xib'e iwir pa k'ayb'äl.

Looking back and ahead#

With n-/y-, x- and xt-/xk- you can now place any verb of Chapters 10 and 11 in the present, past or future, and the person machinery never changes. The fourth and last aspect/mood prefix, the imperative t-/k-, is the subject of Chapter 13 (Commands, Requests, and Wishes); it shares the r-drop and the bridging i you learned here. Chapter 14 (Directionals and Verbs of Motion) explains the kan and apo you saw in "four days ago" and "in four days", and Chapter 15 (States, Results, and Ongoing Actions) fills in the one gap this chapter left open: how to say "I was doing" and "I have done".